Isaac Hoskins

University of the Sciences

Galen Book 1

Isaac Hoskins /
  • Created on 2021-02-19 19:53:32
  • Modified on 2021-02-20 01:48:03
  • Translated by A.J. Brock
  • Aligned by Isaac Hoskins
Paragraph 1 Book 1 Alignment of Galen's "On the Natural Faculties
Ἑλληνική Transliterate
English
urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0057.tlg010.perseus-grc1:1.1
urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0057.tlg010.perseus-eng1:1.1

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Galen

Isaac Hoskins /
  • Created on 2021-02-20 01:55:20
  • Modified on 2021-03-05 18:04:10
  • Translated by A.J. Brock
  • Aligned by Isaac Hoskins
Galens "On the Natural Faculties Book 1 Chapter 1
Ἑλληνική Transliterate
English
urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0057.tlg010.perseus-grc1:1.1
urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0057.tlg010.perseus-eng1:1.1

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( 100 ) 81% GRC - ENG

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Galen "On the Natural Faculties" IH 1.2

Isaac Hoskins /
  • Created on 2021-03-05 02:29:04
  • Modified on 2021-03-05 19:44:34
  • Translated by A.J. Brock
  • Aligned by Isaac Hoskins
Sequence alignment of Galen's "On the Natural Faculties" with the AJ Brock translation
Ἑλληνική Transliterate
English
urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0057.tlg010.perseus-grc1:1.2
urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0057.tlg010.perseus-eng1:1.2
καὶ ζητήσομεν κατὰ τόνδε τὸν λόγον , ὑπὸτίνων γίγνεται δυνάμεων αὐτὰ δὴ ταῦτα καὶ εἰδή τι ἄλλο φύσεως ἔργον ἐστίν . ἀλλὰ πρότερόν γε διελέσθαι τε χρὴ καὶμηνῦσαι σαφῶς ἕκαστον τῶν ὀνομάτων , οἷς χρησόμεθα κατὰ τόνδε τὸν λόγον , καὶ ἐφ᾽ ὅ τι φέρομεν πρᾶγμα . γενήσεται δὲ τοῦτ᾽ εὐθὺς ἔργωνφυσικῶν διδασκαλία σὺν ταῖς τῶν ὀνομάτωνἐξηγήσεσιν . ὅταν οὖν τι σῶμα κατὰ μηδὲν ἐξαλλάττηταιτῶν προϋπαρχόντων , ἡσυχάζειν αὐτό φαμεν : εἰδ᾽ ἐξίσταιτό πῃ , κατ᾽ ἐκεῖνο κινεῖσθαι . καὶ τοίνυνἐπεὶ πολυειδῶς ἐξίσταται , πολυειδῶς καὶ κινηθήσεται . καὶ γὰρ εἰ λευκὸνὑπάρχον μελαίνοιτοκαὶ εἰ μέλαν λευκαίνοιτο , κινεῖται κατὰ χρόαν , καὶ εἰ γλυκὺ τέως ὑπάρχον αὖθις αὐστηρὸν ἢἔμπαλιν ἐξ αὐστηροῦ γλυκὺ γένοιτο , καὶ τοῦτ᾽ ἂνκινεῖσθαι λέγοιτο κατὰ τὸν χυμόν . ἄμφω δεταῦτά τε καὶ τὰ προειρημένα κατὰ τὴν ποιότητακινεῖσθαι λεχθήσεται καὶ οὐ μόνον γε τὰ κατὰτὴν χρόαν ἢ τὸν χυμὸν ἐξαλλαττόμενα κινεῖσθαίφαμεν , ἀλλὰ καὶ τὸ θερμότερον ἐκ ψυχροτέρουγενόμενον ἢ ψυχρότερον ἐκ θερμοτέρου κινεῖσθαικαὶ τοῦτο λέγομεν , ὥσπερ γε καὶ εἴ τι ξηρὸν ἐξὑγροῦ ἢ ὑγρὸν ἐκ ξηροῦ γίγνοιτο . κοινὸν δὲ κατὰτούτων ἁπάντων ὄνομα φέρομεν τὴν ἀλλοίωσιν . ἕν τι τοῦτο γένος κινήσεως . ἕτερον δὲ γένοςἐπὶ τοῖς τὰς χώρας ἀμείβουσι σώμασι καὶ τόπονἐκ τόπου μεταλλάττειν λεγομένοις , ὄνομα δὲ καὶτούτῳ φορά . αὗται μὲν οὖν αἱ δύο κινήσεις ἁπλαῖ καὶπρῶται , σύνθετοι δ᾽ ἐξ αὐτῶν αὔξησίς τε καὶφθίσις , ὅταν ἐξ ἐλάττονός τι μεῖζον ἢ ἐκ μείζονοςἔλαττον γένηται φυλάττον τὸ οἰκεῖον εἶδος . ἕτεραιδὲ δύο κινήσεις γένεσις καὶ φθορά , γένεσις μὲν ἡεἰς οὐσίαν ἀγωγή , φθορὰ δ᾽ ἡ ἐναντία . πάσαις δὲ ταῖς κινήσεσι κοινὸν ἐξάλλαξιςτοῦ προϋπάρχοντος , ὥσπερ οὖν καὶ ταῖς ἡσυχίαιςἡ φυλακὴ τῶν προϋπαρχόντων . ἀλλ᾽ ὅτι μὲνἐξαλλάττεται καὶ πρὸς τὴν ὄψιν καὶ πρὸς τὴνγεῦσιν καὶ πρὸς τὴν ἁφὴν αἷμα γιγνόμενα τὰσιτία , συγχωροῦσιν : ὅτι δὲ καὶ κατ᾽ ἀλήθειαν , οὐκέτι τοῦθ᾽ ὁμολογοῦσιν οἱ σοφισταί . οἱ μὲνγάρ τινες αὐτῶν ἅπαντα τὰ τοιαῦτα τῶν ἡμετέρωναἰσθήσεων ἀπάτας τινὰς καὶ παραγωγὰς νομίζουσιν ἄλλοτ᾽ ἄλλως πασχουσῶν , τῆς ὑποκειμένης οὐσίας μηδὲν τούτων , οἷς ἐπονομάζεται , δεχομένης : οἱ δέ τινες εἶναι μὲν ἐν αὐτῇ βούλονταιτὰς ποιότητας , ἀμεταβλήτους δὲ καὶ ἀτρέπτουςἐξ αἰῶνος εἰς αἰῶνα καὶ τὰς φαινομένας ταύταςἀλλοιώσεις τῇ διακρίσει τε καὶ συγκρίσει γίγνεσθαί φασιν ὡς Ἀναξαγόρας . εἰ δὴ τούτους ἐκτραπόμενος ἐξελέγχοιμι , μεῖζονἄν μοι τὸ πάρεργον τοῦ ἔργου γένοιτο . εἰ μὲνγὰρ οὐκ ἴσασιν , ὅσα περὶ τῆς καθ᾽ ὅλην τὴνοὐσίαν ἀλλοιώσεως Ἀριστοτέλει τε καὶ μετ᾽αὐτὸν Χρυσίππῳ γέγραπται , παρακαλέσαι χρὴτοῖς ἐκείνων αὐτοὺς ὁμιλῆσαι γράμμασιν : εἰ δὲγιγνώσκοντες ἔπειθ᾽ ἑκόντες τὰ χείρω πρὸ τῶνβελτιόνων αἱροῦνται , μάταια δήπου καὶ τὰἡμέτερα νομιοῦσιν . ὅτι δὲ καὶ Ἱπποκράτηςοὕτως ἐγίγνωσκεν Ἀριστοτέλους ἔτι πρότερος ὤν , ἐν ἑτέροις ἡμῖν ἀποδέδεικται . πρῶτος γὰρ οὗτοςἁπάντων ὧν ἴσμεν ἰατρῶν τε καὶ φιλοσόφων ἀποδεικνύειν ἐπεχείρησε τέτταραςεἶναι τὰς πάσαςδραστικὰς εἰς ἀλλήλας ποιότητας , ὑφ᾽ ὧν γίγνεταίτε καὶ φθείρεται πάνθ᾽ , ὅσα γένεσίν τε καὶ φθορὰνἐπιδέχεται . καὶ μέντοι καὶ τὸ κεράννυσθαι δι᾽ἀλλήλων αὐτὰς ὅλας δι᾽ ὅλων Ἱπποκράτης ἁπάντων πρῶτος ἔγνω : καὶ τὰςἀρχάς γε τῶν ἀποδείξεων , ὧν ὕστερον Ἀριστοτέλης μετεχειρίσατο , παρ᾽ ἐκείνῳ πρώτῳ γεγραμμένας ἔστιν εὑρεῖν . εἰ δ᾽ ὥσπερ τὰς ποιότητας οὕτω καὶ τὰς οὐσίαςδι᾽ ὅλων κεράννυσθαι χρὴ νομίζειν , ὡς ὕστερονἀπεφήνατο Ζήνων ὁ Κιττιεύς , οὐχ ἡγοῦμαι δεῖνἔτι περὶ τούτου κατὰ τόνδε τὸν λόγον ἐπεξιέναι . μόνην γὰρ εἰς τὰ παρόντα δέομαι γιγνώσκεσθαιτὴν δι᾽ ὅλης τῆς οὐσίας ἀλλοίωσιν , ἵνα μή τιςὀστοῦ καὶ σαρκὸς καὶ νεύρου καὶ τῶν ἄλλωνἑκάστου μορίων οἱονεὶ μισγάγκειάν τινα τῷ ἄρτῳνομίσῃ περιέχεσθαι κἄπειτ᾽ ἐν τῷ σώματι διακρινόμενον ὡς τὸ ὁμόφυλονἕκαστον ἰέναι . καίτοιπρό γε τῆς διακρίσεως αἷμα φαίνεται γιγνόμενοςὁ πᾶς ἄρτος . εἰ γοῦν παμπόλλῳ τις χρόνῳ μηδὲνἄλλ᾽ εἴη σιτίον προσφερόμενος , οὐδὲν ἧττον ἐνταῖς φλεψὶν αἷμα περιεχόμενον ἕξει . καὶ φανερῶςτοῦτο τὴν τῶν ἀμετάβλητα τὰ στοιχεῖα τιθεμένωνἐξελέγχει δόξαν , ὥσπερ οἶμαι καὶ τοὔλαιον εἰςτὴν τοῦ λύχνου φλόγα καταναλισκόμενον ἅπανκαὶ τὰ ξύλα πῦρ μικρὸν ὕστερον γιγνόμενα . καίτοι τό γ᾽ ἀντιλέγειν αὐτοῖς ἠρνησάμην , ἀλλ᾽ἐπεὶ τῆς ἰατρικῆς ὕλης ἦν τὸ παράδειγμα καὶχρῄζω πρὸς τὸν παρόντα λόγον αὐτοῦ , διὰ τοῦτ᾽ἐμνημόνευσα . καταλιπόντες οὖν , ὡς ἔφην , τὴνπρὸς τούτους ἀντιλογίαν , ἐνὸν τοῖς βουλομένοιςτὰ τῶν παλαιῶν ἐκμανθάνειν κἀξ ὧν ἡμεῖς ἰδίᾳπερὶ αὐτῶν ἐπεσκέμμεθα . τὸν ἐφεξῆς λόγον ἅπαντα ποιησόμεθα ζητοῦντεςὑπὲρ ὧν ἐξ ἀρχῆς προὐθέμεθα , πόσαι τε καὶ τίνεςεἰσὶν αἱ τῆς φύσεως δυνάμεις καὶ τί ποιεῖν ἔργονἑκάστη πέφυκεν . ἔργον δὲ δηλονότι καλῶ τὸγεγονὸς ἤδη καὶ συμπεπληρωμένον ὑπὸ τῆς ἐνεργείας αὐτῶν , οἷον τὸ αἷμα , τὴν σάρκα , τὸ νεῦρον : ἐνέργειαν δὲ τὴν δραστικὴν ὀνομάζω κίνησιν καὶτὴν ταύτης αἰτίαν δύναμιν . ἐπεὶ γὰρ ἐν τῷ τὸσιτίον αἷμα γίγνεσθαι παθητικὴ μὲν ἡ τοῦ σιτίου , δραστικὴ δ᾽ ἡ τῆς φλεβὸς γίγνεται κίνησις , ὡσαύτως δὲ κἀν τῷ μεταφέρειντὰ κῶλα κινεῖ μὲν ὁμῦς , κινεῖται δὲ τὰ ὀστᾶ , τὴν μὲν τῆς φλεβὸς καὶτῶν μυῶν κίνησιν ἐνέργειαν εἶναί φημι , τὴν δὲτῶν σιτίων τε καὶ τῶν ὀστῶν σύμπτωμά τε καὶπάθημα : τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἀλλοιοῦται , τὰ δὲ φέρεται . τὴν μὲν οὖν ἐνέργειαν ἐγχωρεῖ καλεῖν καὶ ἔργοντῆς φύσεως , οἷον τὴν πέψιν , τὴν ἀνάδοσιν , τὴναἱμάτωσιν , οὐ μὴν τό γ᾽ ἔργον ἐξ ἅπαντος ἐνέργειαν : ἡ γάρ τοι σὰρξ ἔργον μέν ἐστι τῆς φύσεως , οὐ μὴν ἐνέργειά γε . δῆλον οὖν , ὡς θάτερον μὲντῶν ὀνομάτων διχῶς λέγεται , θάτερον δ᾽ οὔ .
Thus we shall enquire , in the course of this treatise , from what faculties these effects themselves , as well as any other effects of nature which there may be , take their origin . First , however , we must distinguish and explain clearly the various terms which we are going to use in this treatise , and to what things we apply them ; and this will prove to be not merely an explanation of terms but at the same time a demonstration of the effects of nature . When , therefore , such and such a body undergoes no change from its existing state , we say that it is at rest ; but , notwithstanding , if it departs from this in any respect we then say that in this respect it undergoes motion . Accordingly , when it departs in various ways from its preexisting state , it will be said to undergo various kinds of motion . Thus , if that which is white becomes black , or what is black becomes white , it undergoes motion in respect to colour ; or if what was previously sweet now becomes bitter , or , conversely , from being bitter now becomes sweet , it will be said to undergo motion in respect to flavour ; to both of these instances , as well as to those previously mentioned , we shall apply the term qualitative motion . And further , it is not only things which are altered in regard to colour and flavour which , we say , undergo motion ; when a warm thing becomes cold , and a cold warm , here too we speak of its undergoing motion ; similarly also when any-thing moist becomes dry , or dry moist . Now , the common term which we apply to all these cases is alteration . This is one kind of motion . But there is another kind which occurs in bodies which change their position , or as we say , pass from one place to another ; the name of this is transference . These two kinds of motion , then , are simple and primary , while compounded from them we have growth and decay , as when a small thing becomes bigger , or a big thing smaller , each retaining at the same time its particular form . And two other kinds of motion are genesis and destruction , genesis being a coming into existence , and destruction being the opposite . Now , common to all kinds of motion is change from the preexisting state , while common to all conditions of rest is retention of the preexisting state . The Sophists , however , while allowing that bread in turning into blood becomes changed as regards sight , taste , and touch , will not agree that this change occurs in reality . Thus some of them hold that all such phenomena are tricks and illusions of our senses ; the senses , they say , are affected now in one way , now in another , whereas the underlying substance does not admit of any of these changes to which the names are given . Others ( such as Anaxagoras ) will have it that the qualities do exist in it , but that they are unchangeable and immutable from eternity to eternity , and that these apparent alterations are brought about by separation and combination . Now , if I were to go out of my way to confute these people , my subsidiary task would be greater than my main one . Thus , if they do not know all that has been written , " On Complete Alteration of Substance " by Aristotle , and after him by Chrysippus , I must beg of them to make themselves familiar with these men ' s writings . If , however , they know these , and yet willingly prefer the worse views to the better , they will doubtless consider my arguments foolish also . I have shown elsewhere that these opinions were shared by Hippocrates , who lived much earlier than Aristotle . In fact , all those known to us who have been both physicians and philosophers Hippocrates was the first who took in hand to demonstrate that there are , in all , four mutually interacting qualities , and that to the operation of these is due the genesis and destruction of all things that come into and pass out of being . Nay , more ; Hippocrates was also the first to recognise that all these qualities undergo an intimate mingling with one another ; and at least the beginnings of the proofs to which Aristotle later set his hand are to be found first in the writings of Hippocrates . As to whether we are to suppose that the substances as well as their qualities undergo this intimate mingling , as Zeno of Citium afterwards declared , I do not think it necessary to go further into this question in the present treatise ; for immediate purposes we only need to recognize the complete alteration of substance . In this way , nobody will suppose that bread represents a kind of meeting-place for bone , flesh , nerve , and all the other parts , and that each of these subsequently becomes separated in the body and goes to join its own kind ; before any separation takes place , the whole of the bread obviously becomes blood ; ( at any rate , if a man takes no other food for a prolonged period , he will have blood enclosed in his veins all the same ) . And clearly this disproves the view of those who consider the elements unchangeable , as also , for that matter , does the oil which is entirely used up in the flame of the lamp , or the faggots which , in a somewhat longer time , turn into fire . I said , however , that I was not going to enter into an argument with these people , and it was only because the example was drawn from the subject-matter of medicine , and because I need it for the present treatise , that I have mentioned it . We shall then , as I said , renounce our controversy with them , since those who wish may get a good grasp of the views of the ancients from our own personal investigations into these matters . The discussion which follows we shall devote entirely , as we originally proposed , to an enquiry into the number and character of the faculties of Nature , and what is the effect which each naturally produces . Now , of course , I mean by an effect that which has already come into existence and has been completed by the activity of these faculties- for example , blood , flesh , or nerve . And activity is the name I give to the active change or motion , and the cause of this I call a faculty . Thus , when food turns into blood , the motion of the food is passive , and that of the vein active . Similarly , when the limbs have their position altered , it is the muscle which produces , and the bones which undergo the motion . In these cases I call the motion of the vein and of the muscle an activity , and that of the food and the bones a symptom or affection , since the first group undergoes alteration and the second group is merely transported . One might , therefore , also speak of the activity as an effect of Nature for example , digestion , absorption , blood-production ; one could not , however , in every case call the effect an activity ; thus flesh is an effect of Nature , but it is , of course , not an activity . It is , therefore , clear that one of these terms is used in two senses , but not the other .

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